Francois Marie Arouet (Voltaire)

Francois Marie Arouet (Voltaire) Francois Marie Arouet (Voltaire) was a French philosopher and a writer. Voltaire was born in the year 1694 in Paris. As a young boy, Voltaire received his education at the Jesuit school between the years 1704 and 1711. At the school, Voltaire learned Latin, Greek, English, and Spanish.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Francois Marie Arouet (Voltaire) specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Between the years 1711 and 1713, Voltaire studied law while working as a secretary in Paris. Later on, Voltaire quitted the law school, and concentrated on writing contrary to his father’s wishes. As a writer, he wrote several writings in all major literary fields. It is estimated that he wrote more than 1800 books, 20 000 letters and numerous brochures. Through his works, Voltaire became prominent for his wit and hilarious verses. During the Voltaire’s time, Europe was going through the age of enlightenment. With contributio n from various intellectuals, advance knowledge spread across most urban areas in Europe. In spite of the advanced knowledge, it should be noted that stern and suppressive laws with severe consequences were practiced at the time. Similarly, it was blasphemous to champion Christian dogmas. In spite of this, Voltaire became a social reformist, and criticized religious intolerance, war, and social injustices in French institutions. As a result, Voltaire was arrested severally and imprisoned by the authorities. To date, Voltaire works are considered absurd. His works portray him as a racist individual, who has no respect for the Jews and the Africans. More often, he questions the Africans’ intellectual ability due to their involvement in the slave trade. Until his death, at the age of 83, Voltaire worked as a writer. In writings, satire refers to the art of using irony, mockery and sarcasm to provoke individuals’ or society’s behaviors. For a writing to be acknowled ged as a satire, it must possess the following five characteristics: be targeted at the crooked, be humorous, be reform oriented, be ironic, and be exaggerated. Satirical writings try to point out faults in society and organizations. By doing so, actions, injustices, shortcomings, and policies are denounced. Most writers do not choose to express their thoughts through satire to cause harm or damage, but rather to expose the vices in the society through humorous and comical ways. As a result, appropriate use of satire is considered as the most effective way of exposing evil traits in the society. In my opinion, Voltaire through Candide uses satire to condemn the world’s evil, Christian dogmas, and war in the society he lived in. Candide ridicules a variety of secular and idealistic theories. He sarcastically illustrates several inherent evils in the world such as earthquakes, diseases, and storms. Through this text, religious leaders and the authorities felt offended.Advertisi ng Looking for essay on literature languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More

Definition and Examples of Speakers in Language Studies

Definition and Examples of Speakers in Language Studies In linguistics and communication studies, a speaker is one who speaks: the producer of an utterance.  In rhetoric, a speaker is an orator: one who delivers a speech or formal address to an audience. In literary studies, a speaker is a  narrator: one who tells a story.   Observations On Speakers The average adult English speaker has a vocabulary of around thirty thousand words and speaks ten to twelve sounds per second. Most of us in modern America, apart from the very solitary and the very garrulous, speak anywhere from 7,500 to 22,500 words a day. Grabbing these words, one every four hundred milliseconds on average, and arranging them in sequences that are edited and reviewed for grammar and appropriateness before theyre spoken requires a symphony of neurons working quickly and precisely. Pronouncing (or signing) words in any language requires that your brain coordinate with your body in order to turn the electricity of nerve impulses into waves of sound (or, if you sign, of gesture and motion). So far, scientists have been able to draw only simple models of how the control of language toggles back and forth between the brain and the body.(Michael Erard, Um, Slips, Stumbles, and Verbal Blunders, and What They Mean. Random House, 2008)Since native speakers of a language can not have memorized each phrase or sentence of their language, given that the set of phrases and sentences is infinite, their linguistic knowledge cannot be characterized as a list of phrases or sentences. . . . If a list of phrases is insufficient, then how can we characterize the native speakers linguistic knowledge? We will say that a speakers linguistic knowledge can be characterized as a grammar consisting of a finite set of rules and principles that form the basis for the speakers ability to produce and comprehend the unlimited number of phrases and sentences of the language.(Adrian Akmajian, et al., Linguistics: An Introduction to Language and Communication, 5th ed. MIT Press, 2001) We thus make a fundamental distinction between competence (the speaker-hearers knowledge of his language) and performance (the actual use of language in concrete situations). . . . A record of natural speech will show numerous false starts, deviations from rules, changes of plan in mid-course, and so on. The problem for the linguist, as well as the child learning the language, is to determine from the data of performance the underlying system of rules that have been mastered by the speaker-hearer and that he puts to use in actual performance.(Noam Chomsky, Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. MIT Press, 1965) Pronunciation: SPEE-ker Etymology: From the Old English, speak Source: Adrian Akmajian, et al., Linguistics: An Introduction to Language and Communication, 5th ed. MIT Press, 2001 Michael Erard, Um, Slips, Stumbles, and Verbal Blunders, and What They Mean. Random House, 2008 Noam Chomsky, Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. MIT Press, 1965

Ethnographic research paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Ethnographic - Research Paper Example According to oral history passed on over generations, the Maasai culture is said to have begun in the 15th century (Strang 2010). The Maasai people have interacted with the Cushites who have been their neighbors hence adopting most of their lifestyles. The interaction led to assimilation of some of the Cushitic groups in East Africa leading to the Maasai’s extension of their boundaries further south to Tanzania. Their culture has been a source of tourist attraction in both countries. It has also attracted scholars and anthropologists who have studied the culture deeply to come up with its social and cultural roots and understand its activities. Their strong cultural bonds have helped in the endurance of the Maasai culture in the dynamic world due to impacts from Western cultures. The Maasai has the age-set as the central unit of their society. It consists of small boys and girls who have undergone the set rituals to become adults. The boys in the same age-set start taking care of their cattle at tender ages making most of them skip school. To encourage them and ensure survival in different situations, they are frequently beaten to help them gain courage that is useful while herding cattle in the wild. The girls are allocated duties such as milking and cooking (Strang 2010). They learn most of their roles from their parents as soon as they stop breastfeeding. As for the boys, they are initiated into morans (Warriors) from the ages of 12-25 years. Circumcision is a rite of passage that involves both genders. Boys have to undergo painful circumcision procedures that ensure they become strong men in the future. Society elders who use locally available tools; hence, lack anesthetics in the procedure perform the ritual. The boys are believed to undergo the pain in silence and fight it on their own. Failure of endurance leads the marking of the individual making him known to the community of being a coward. During the circumcision

Evaluate Sainsbury plc's financial strategy Essay - 2

Evaluate Sainsbury plc's financial strategy - Essay Example Sainsbury's is headquartered in Holborn Circus. To ensure that its products are effectively distributed in the local and neighboring markets, the supermarket has established a number of subsidiaries in the UK market. Under the leadership of David Tyler and Justin King the company chairman and chief executive respectively, Sainsbury’s has more than 150,000 employees. This has resulted to a significant increment on the company revenue that stood at ?21.102Â  billion in 2011. This paper, evaluate Sainsbury plc’s financial strategy by analyzing its financial performance in the last few years. To expand its customer’s base and generate more revenue that is needed to undertake its operations, Sainsbury's has opened a number of stores, supermarkets and a significant number of hypermarkets. To ensure that the supermarket is financial strong to cater for its short-term and long-term liabilities, Sainsbury's operates Sainsbury's Bank whose key objectives is to sell financ ial products. One of the major factors that Sainsbury's has adopted to enhance its financial performance was the formation of a joint venture with Lloyds Banking Company among other firms. Major strategies that Sainsbury's has adopted to strengthen its financial position is merger and acquisitions (Adizes 35). As depicted earlier, the supermarket generated total revenue of ?21.102Â  billion in 2011. ... ncial Statement 2012 indicate that as a result of the increase in the investment, the net debt of the company increased from ?1,814 million in 2011 to ?1,980 million in 2012. This was however, offset by reasonable cash that was generated from leasebacks and sales. Table indicating cash generated from operations and net cash from operating activities by Sainsbury’s in 2011 and in 2012 financial years. Figures are in ? million. Cash generated from operations 1291 1388 Interest paid (142) (126) Corporation tax paid (82) (158) Net cash from operating activities 1067 854 Net cash used in investing activities (883) (902) Issue of shares proceeds 14 17 New debt 391 45 Borrowings repayments (65) (79) Dividends paid (285) (269) Source- Sainsbury’s Annual Report and Financial Statement 2012 Financing of Sainsbury operations According to the board of the directors, Sainsbury’s is focused at effectively managing its finances by maintaining appropriate stand-by liquidity, red ucing the risks of refinancing and diversifying the sources of funds. Two of the major long-term loans that are vital in the operations of Sainsbury’s include loans of ?1,036 million and ?843 million that are due on 2018 and 2031 respectively. The company has provided its property assets as the security for the loans. Other key sources of funds includes unsecured loans of ?499 million, finances leases of ?143 million, and convertible bonds issued to the public amounting to ?190 million. Based on the profitability of the company, the board is focused at repaying the loans in the next five years. In order to have adequate cash to cater for short term and urgent liabilities, Sainsbury’s maintains a revolving credit facility amounting to ?690 millions (Modigliani and Miller 263). According to the 2012

Body soul destinction Essay Example for Free

Body soul destinction Essay Religious philosophy can offer no firm evidence for a distinction between body and soul. Discuss. Humans appear to have both a body and a mind, the body which is related to physical movements and appearances. And the mind which relates to feelings and emotions, qualia. Many philosophers therefore make a distinction between the mind and body, the dualist view that a person is made of two separate substances. On the other hand, some philosophers take a monist/ materialist view that the mind and the body are the same substance. This is a contentious area of philosophy, and has created a debate known as the mind, body problem. Such philosophers as Plato take a dualist view and try to offer evidence to suggest a distinction between the body and soul. Plato saw the body and soul as two separate entities. The soul that most closely resembles the divine and immortal. While the body resembles the human and mortal, which is endlessly changing and can be broken down. Plato was not trying to suggest the soul was perfect as it joined the body which it is inhibited by, however, he explains that by taking care of the soul the person can develop knowledge. Plato used evidence such as the world of the forms. He suggested that by taking care of the soul and ignoring physical pleasures the soul can return to the word of the forms when the body dies. The evidence of Platos theory can be seen everyday. For the body to survive it must meet its basic needs such as food, reproduction and physical pleasure. On the other hand for the mind to be stimulated it has other needs that are met through deep thought and learning. However, there is a flaw to Platos theory, how can you have two completely different substances that are the same thing? Platos theory suggests the body and soul can work together to achieve a higher level of existence, but if the body and soul are completely different there is no evidence to suggest they would be compatible. Another dualist, Aquinas took a more religious view of dualism. He believed that the body and soul were separate and described the soul as that which animates the body or anima. According to Aquinas, the soul operates independently of the body. Aquinas believed the only things that are divisible into parts decay. The soul is not divisible and therefore on this basis of Aquinas argument it is able to survive death. However, through the link with a particular human body the soul becomes an individual so even when the body dies the soul that departs has an immortal existence. Evidence for religious views on the soul come from the bible. Within the new testament, there are stories of Jesus resurrection that suggest dualism. Within one particular story Jesus disciples are walking to Emaus. Along the way they are joined by a man, it is only when they arrive at Emaus and offer the man a place to eat and stay that he reveals himself as Jesus. This supports the dualist view as firstly, it proves that the soul is immortal and lives on after death, and secondly that the soul is separate from the body as the man who claims to be Jesus appears to be unrecognisable implying he has a different physical appearance. For Christians this will act as firm evidence that there is a body soul distinction, however for those who are not Christian the evidence may not be so reliable. Cartesian duality formed by Rene Descartes, describes the mind and body as being separates and is based on the phrase I think therefore I am. Descartes explained that feelings and sensations cannot be located physically. He accepted that everything non physical is in the mind and therefore must be distinct from the body. The mind according to Descartes is non spatial and is distinct from material and bodily substances. He suggested that everything has characteristics and that the mind and bodys characteristics are different therefore hey must be separate. For example a property of the mind may be consciousness, whereas the body has more aesthetic qualities such as height breadth etc. Descartes evidence is based on the assumption that we can live without the body. He concluded that the body has the job of performing physical activities however, it is the mind that contains our identity. For Descartes the mind is I, that we can live without the body as the mind makes us who we are. Descartes took the religious view that after our death the soul is able to continue and be with God. A mans soul is that to which the pure mental properties of a man belong. Richard Swinburne developed a dualist view based on the soul being indestructible and indivisible. Swinburne suggested that is a logical possibility for a person to exist after the body dies, as the soul lives on. The soul according to Swinburne is linked with mental processes and activity and its independent from the body. Evidence for Swinburnes theory comes from near death experiences. In many instances people have claimed to have had near death experiences whereby their hearts have stopped during surgery and yet they have reported detailed accounts of what happened during the time they were clinically dead. For some this is evidence for consciousness, however if the body and soul is one entity this would be impossible. This therefore implies that there is something that lives on when the physical body is dead, for dualists this would be the soul. On the other hand although the details of the experiences seem to be accurate there is no proof that the experiences may not be caused by another physical phenomena. On the other hand Dawkins, a biological materialist would disagree with the opinion that the soul and the body are separate substances. Dawkins bases his theory on evolution and genetics. He would reject any concept of an eternal soul and therefore rejects dualism. Some of Dawkins work includes the selfish gene and the blind watchmaker Within these he rejects any idea of the religious view of dualism and within the selfish gene he explains that humans are a lucky accident and that all life is opportunistic and humans are merely genetic mutations with the need to mindlessly replicate. Dawkins does not deny human dignity and accepts the complexity of human life to be able to contemplate the origins of human life. The evidence for Dawkins theory of biological materialism is based on DNA. Dawkins explains DNA as a code of instructions that is made up of millions of strands of genetic information. Genes according to Dawkins program who a person is, and it is DNA that singly creates what a person looks like as well as their personality. For Dawkins both the mind and body are controlled by the DNA and therefore he suggests that there is no need for a soul. Although Dawkins theory is based on empirical evidence and it has been proved that certain genes decide certain parts of a persons characteristics there is yet no proof to suggest that genes make up the whole of a someones personality and therefore it could be seen that there may be something else, this may be the soul. John Hick has formed a view of religious materialism. He stated that humans are one composite being, one substance. His theory the replica theory he realised from a religious point of view the problem was continuity. In life after death how can someone be the same person without their body. Therefore Hick suggests that there must be some kind of replica. This replica is the same person however, whilst they cannot exist at the same time. According to Hick at the same time that when a person dies a replica of them is created by God. This is a way of preserving personal identity after death. The evidence for religious materialism is based on the resurrection of Jesus. Some accounts during the new testament describe Jesus after the resurrection and was recognised by followers before ascension. From a religious view this is evidence for the replica theory as it appears that Jesus died and when he came back had the same physical appearance as well as the same personality. Identity theory puts forward a materialist view of the soul. Identity theory is against behaviourism and suggests that the mind and the brain are in the same place. In the brain, consciousness is generated as well as the other physical processes we link with the brain such as movement. Evidence for this is put foreward in the philosophy files. Within the book and analogy explains how if you were to look in the brain you would be able to locate an area that is stimulated and that thoughts must be generated in this area. We already know only 10% of the brains capacity is used consciously and therefore it is a logical assumption that our mind is located within the brain. An analogy for this is that a woman can be a mother, a daughter and a sister etc. The same person can have many functions, it is therefore the same for the brain which as well as having the functions we already recognise such as controlling physical activity, speaking and controlling bodily functions it can also control the mind. Overall, although religious philosophy offers an explanation for the body soul distinction it is based on little empirical evidence. For those who already follow the religion it may fit in with their beliefs however, for those who are atheist of follow another religion the evidence that it uses makes little logical sense. Such dualists views as Plato where the assumptions are based on everyday life may be more appropriate, however there is still little empirical evidence to prove the theory. On the other hand materialists put fore ward convincing arguments based on scientifically testable theories i.e. Dawkins. But neither arguments yet put enough evidence fore ward to either prove their views or disprove that of others. Therefore the statement Religious philosophy can offer no firm evidence for a distinction between body and soul may be considered as correct, however there is not yet enough evidence to suggest that religious views of dualism cannot be true.

A Stranger is Watching Essay -- essays papers

A Stranger is Watching In novels there are many literary devices that an author may use. Suspense is one that is used to grab the reader’s attention and keep reading. Mary Higgins Clark demonstrates suspense throughout her novel, A Stranger Is Watching by giving only so much information then she will direct your attention to something else so the reader keeps reading. Some suspenseful scenes that the author demonstrates in the novel are when an intruder is in the Peterson home and is pointing a gun at Sharon’s head, another is when Sharon is in the kidnapper’s car and cleverly puts her ring in the seat so maybe someone would find it, and when Mrs. Perry comes to the Peterson home and tells everyone that she knows the voice of the kidnapper. When Sharon and Neil are home alone at the Peterson home waiting for Mr. Peterson to arrive home from work someone rings the doorbell. Neil then scrambles for the door thinking that it was his father and is stopped by Sharon telling him to ask who it is because his father would have his key. The stranger on the other side of the d...

Candide’s Old Woman

Despite â€Å"growing old in misery and in shame, having only half a backside and remembering always that I was the daughter of a Pope† as she, the Old Woman told Candide, â€Å"a hundred times I wanted to kill myself, but always I loved life more†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The Old Woman endured an series of unrelenting episodes which would have made anyone want to kill themselves but at her old age, instead of appearing doubtful and full of regret, like Candide, she looked at the bright side and still had the desire to live her life even if it began with hardships.Suicide is seen a very coward like act in the eyes of society, back then and today. Especially for one who practices Christian values. It can be said that one of the reasons why a person who would commit such an act of violence against themselves is because that person does not value and love their own self enough to stop feeling sorry and down for themselves and know that they're worth more than anything, pick up the pieces an d themselves back up.The Old Woman did not start off well in life, being the daughter of a Pope did not mean that she had been granted a place in the world or had started off with a sunny predisposition, quite the contrary, instead she was the product of a woman and a man who disobeyed the vows of celibacy. with that said, her parents, her dad more than anything, had bore shame upon themselves. In their eyes, her sole existence was illegitimate. The Old Woman, as wise as she was, was also strong. People with strong mentalities are able to endure and survive obstacles that others would have given up on long ago.The old woman thought that loving life was a ridiculous weakness that one â€Å"that chooses to carry a burden that no one wants to cast on the ground, to hold existence in horror and to cling to it? To fondle the serpent which devours us till it has eaten out our heart? † we as humans, can be weak sometimes and succumb to renounce own lives in order to end pain and suf fering of a situation that we feel that we have no control over and will not be able to surpass. The old woman endured many tragedies but still, she rose above them. She was widowed at a young age, raped, sold, enslaved, not to mention had half of her butt eaten!Any woman's from this day and age wouldn't think twice about committing suicide over losing half of a butt! Being the daughter of a Pope didn't ensure that she was going to be protected in any way against the hardships she had to bear to get to where she was as she related to Candide and Miss Cunegonde. The only reason why she told her story to them was because they both provoked her by talking about their own petty misfortunes compared to what she had been through. Weather a person believes in God or not, life is something that must be cherished while we still have it.There are extreme episodes of trauma that we can experience and at times feel like we won't survive that particular experience and commit suicide, just drop a nd terminate with our burdens right then and there. It seems very easy, that's why some people choose that route. Those that persevere don't choose the easy way and are resilient to a world that shows no mercy. Any human being that has walked the face of this earth and has had a traumatic event happen to them at one point in their lives and that didn't choose suicide as their last resort is a hero in their own way.They are heroes of their own lives and their own fate. In the end, one will still continue to go though the motions of life and new problems will always arise. Life will go on. Those that have become resilient to difficult life experiences only become wiser and stronger and are able to deal with other tough situations. That is the reason why the old woman was able to make it to her old age of course, she didn't get to be who she was, a strong willed woman who was determined to live by giving up.